Mechanisms underlying the regulation of appetite and satiety

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Could you elaborate on the physiological mechanisms underlying the regulation of appetite and satiety, including the roles of gastrointestinal hormones, neural circuits, and adipose tissue-derived signals? How do appetite-regulating hormones such as ghrelin, leptin, peptide YY, and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) convey information about energy status and nutrient availability to the brain, influencing hunger, satiety, and food intake? Additionally, how do neural circuits in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and reward pathways integrate hormonal signals, sensory inputs, and cognitive factors to regulate feeding behavior and energy balance? Furthermore, how do dysregulations in appetite control contribute to eating disorders, obesity, and metabolic diseases, and what strategies are employed in their treatment and management?

Perception of pain and the roles of nociceptors

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Discuss the physiological mechanisms underlying the perception of pain and the roles of nociceptors, neurotransmitters, and pain-modulating pathways in nociception and pain modulation. How do nociceptive sensory neurons detect tissue damage, temperature extremes, or chemical irritants and transmit pain signals to the spinal cord and brain? Additionally, how do neurotransmitters like glutamate, substance P, and endogenous opioids modulate pain transmission and perception in the spinal cord, brainstem, and supraspinal structures? Furthermore, how do descending pain modulation pathways, cognitive factors, and emotional processing influence the experience of pain and individual differences in pain sensitivity and pain coping strategies?

How does the parathyroid gland detect changes in blood calcium concentrations

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Can you elaborate on the physiological mechanisms underlying the regulation of blood calcium levels and the roles of parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D in calcium homeostasis? How does the parathyroid gland detect changes in blood calcium concentrations and secrete PTH to stimulate calcium release from bones, enhance calcium reabsorption in the kidneys, and activate vitamin D synthesis in the kidneys and skin? Additionally, how does calcitonin secretion by the thyroid gland inhibit bone resorption and decrease blood calcium levels in response to hypercalcemia? Furthermore, how do dysregulations in calcium metabolism contribute to bone disorders like osteoporosis, hyperparathyroidism, and hypocalcemia?

Describe the physiological basis of thermogenesis and the role of brown adipose tissue

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Describe the physiological basis of thermogenesis and the role of brown adipose tissue (BAT) in energy expenditure and metabolic regulation. How do uncoupling proteins in BAT mitochondria dissipate proton gradients, generating heat instead of ATP, and contribute to non-shivering thermogenesis? Furthermore, how does the activation of BAT by sympathetic nervous system stimulation, cold exposure, or endocrine factors like thyroid hormones and irisin increase energy expenditure, promote lipid metabolism, and improve metabolic health? Additionally, how do alterations in BAT activity and thermogenic capacity contribute to obesity, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome?

Mechanisms underlying the regulation of sleep-wake cycles

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Can you delve into the physiological mechanisms underlying the regulation of sleep-wake cycles, including the roles of circadian rhythms, sleep stages, and neurotransmitters such as melatonin, serotonin, and adenosine? How do the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus and the pineal gland synchronize the body’s internal clock with external light-dark cycles, leading to the rhythmic release of melatonin and the promotion of sleep onset? Additionally, how do changes in brain activity, neurotransmitter levels, and autonomic functions across different sleep stages, such as REM (rapid eye movement) and non-REM sleep, contribute to restorative sleep and cognitive functions like memory consolidation and emotional processing?

Personal Philosophy

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Personal Philosophy- write a personal philosophy that reflects your opinion of what is considered “normal.” Normal is a relative term that is broadly defined. But in reality, is there a norm? We are all different in many ways.

Submission instructions:

In a typed document, 12 font, times new roman, include your personal philosophy on education that reflects your opinions and beliefs. Complete and submit the assignment by 23:59 CST Sunday.

Briefly describe the physical issue of cancer

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Briefly describe the physical issue of cancer. Compare (similarities and differences) the following factors for men and women:

    • The incidence, mortality rate, diagnosis, and prognosis of cancer
    • The lifestyle and behavior differences that lead to and/or may prevent the health issue of cancer
    • Issues related to healthcare access, diagnosis, and treatment by healthcare professionals
  • Discuss your insights on gender differences and your thoughts about how these gender differences might impact individuals from each gender, the health care system, and society as a whole.

Clinical psychology

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The British Psychological Society has been highly critical of the DSM 5. Clinical psychology, counseling psychology, social work, and other mental health professions are still in the process of deciding how best to continue to adjust to the changes made by the DSM 5. Insurance and drug companies are considering how to alter their approval of various diagnostic categories.

Part 1:

a) Access and read the Learning Resource entitled:  The DSM-5:  Classification and criteria changes (also located in Learning Resources-Week 3)

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3683251/

b) Choose a major change like any one of the changes listed below or a change mentioned in the articles that particularly interests you. Do an internet search for it in relation to the DSM 5 and discuss with us whether or not it is an improvement or problematic from your point of view.

Answer the question: Why do you think this change was made?

Sample changes:

Combining Axes l and ll

Dropping Axis IV (Psychosocial and Environmental Problems)

Dropping Axis V (Global Assessment of Functioning, known as GAF).

Removal of all subtypes of Schizophrenia 

Inclusion of Bereavement

Any disorder change like the Autism Spectrum Disorder, Tobacco Use Disorder, etc.

Harmonizing with the ICD systems

Etc.

Part 2:

Discuss with us the presentation below:

Diagnostic issues:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-AMvrcBvYWk

Describe the history and contributions of the Modern Synthesis

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Describe the history and contributions of the Modern Synthesis. Define populations, population genetics, and methods used to study them

Specify the forces of evolution: mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, natural selection

Explain how allele frequencies can be used to study evolution as it happens

Contrast micro- and macroevolution

Learning Objectives

 

 

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Origins of life

 

Phylogenies

 

Phylogenetic tree of life

 

Universal ancestor

Origin of Life

 

 

 

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Lamarckian inheritance

The Modern Synthesis

 

 

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Pangenesis

 

Weismann’s mouse-tail experiment

 

Gregor Mendel

 

Mutationists

 

Biometricians

The Modern Synthesis

 

 

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Continuous Range of Variation

 

 

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Mutations

 

 

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Fisher and Sanderson Haldane tested mathematical models for evolutionary change

 

Wright and Dobzhansky revealed the existence of chromosomes

 

Ford confirmed Fisher’s mathematical predictions

Polymorphisms: describe alternative phenotypes or multiple forms of a trait

Tying it all Together

 

 

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Populations

 

Species

Viable offspring

Fertile offspring

 

Subspecies

 

Sterile hybrids

Horse + Donkey = Mule

Population Genetics

 

 

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Populations smaller units: genes

Populations: gene pools

Gene variants: alleles

Inherited alleles: genotype

Observable traits of genotype: phenotype

Two of the same alleles: homozygous

Two different alleles: heterozygous

 

Population Genetics: Key Terms

 

 

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Evolution requires:

A population of breeding individuals

Some kind of a genetic change

Simple definition of evolution: change in the allele frequencies in a population over time

Allele frequencies

Genotype frequencies

Defining Evolution

 

 

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Mutations

deleterious, beneficial, spontaneous

Point mutations

Synonymous mutations

Non-synonymous mutations

Missense mutation

Nonsense mutations

Splice site mutation

Frameshift mutations

The Forces of Evolution: Mutations

 

 

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Random changes (“drift”) in allele frequencies

 

Example

Smooth and ruffled cells

The Forces of Evolution: Genetic Drift

 

 

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The Forces of Evolution: Population Bottlenecks

 

 

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Inbreeding

 

Lancaster County Amish population

 

Ellis-van Creveld syndrome

 

The Forces of Evolution: Founder Effects

 

 

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Gene flow in humans: admixture

 

Gene flow in non-human populations: hybridization

 

Harlequin ladybeetle

The Forces of Evolution: Gene Flow

 

 

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Peppered moth

 

Africanized honey bees

The Forces of Evolution: Natural Selection

 

 

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Directional selection

 

Balancing selection

 

Disruptive selection

The Forces of Evolution: Selection

 

 

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Peahen and peacock

 

Non-random mating (assortative mating)

 

Positive assortative mating

 

Negative assortative mating

The Forces of Evolution: Sexual selection

 

 

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Microevolution: changes in allele frequencies within breeding populations; single species

 

Macroevolution: changes that result in new species, similarities and differences between species and their phylogenetic relationships with other taxa

 

Speciation

Allopatric

Sympatric

Micro- to Macroevolution

 

 

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Micro- to Macroevolution

 

 

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Adaptive Radiation

 

 

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Attributions

Slide # Figure # Attribution
3 4.1 Tree of life SVG by Ivica Letunic: Iletunic, retraced by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal: LadyofHats, has been designated to the public domain (CC0). This item has been modified (made grayscale, rotated, labels added).
4 4.2 Modern Synthesis original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License.
5 4.3 Weismann’s mouse-tail experiment original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License.
6 4.4 Weismann’s mouse-tail experiment original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License.
7 4.5 Castle’s Hooded Rat Experiment original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License.
9 2.9 a, b x Horse (pferd-tier-säugetier-reiten-153500) by openclipart-vectors-30363 has been designated to the public domain (CC0). Figure 2.9B Donkey by papapishu has been designated to the public domain (CC0). Figue x Mule (Simple black and white illustration of donkey) by public domain vectors has been designated to the public domain (CC0).
15 13.15 4.12 Bottleneck effect by Tsaneda is used under a CC BY 3.0 License. Figure 4.12 The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License.

 

 

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Attributions

Slide # Figure # Attribution
16 4.13 6 Finger by Wilhelmy is under a CC BY-SA 4.0 License.
17 4.14 Ladybug Gene Flow original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License.
18 4.15 Peppered moths c2 by Khaydock is under a CC BY-SA 3.0 License.
19 4.16 Biology (ID: 185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@9.17) by CNX OpenStax is used under a CC BY 4.0 License.
20 4.18 Peacock tail advantage and disadvantages soriginal to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License.
22 4.19 Isolation Leading to Speciation original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License.
23 4.20 Darwin’s finches original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License.

 

 

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This presentation was developed by the editors of Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology.

 

Unless otherwise specified, all content is made available under a Creative Commons license: CC BY-NC

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An Argumentative interpretation of an aspect

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Essay 2 should be an argumentative interpretation of an aspect or aspects of one of the short stories below. These are to be read and analyzed in addition to your weekly class assignments. Each story is available as a .pdf file; perform a search for these using Google, Yahoo, or the like.

For best results, enter the story title, the author’s last name, and the abbreviation pdf.

• T. Coraghessan Boyle, “Greasy Lake” • Raymond Carver, “Cathedral” • Ralph Ellison, “Battle Royal” • Joyce Carol Oates, “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?” • Tillie Olsen, “I Stand Here Ironing” • Daniel Orozco, “Orientation” • George Saunders, “The 400-Pound CEO”

Limit the scope of your essay to one of these stories; each should provide plenty of potential approaches. Also read the biographical headnotes preceding the stories, which provide some insight and background. Some possible approaches are listed below. Note that these are broad approaches, only beginning points. It is your job to narrow and limit these in order to properly fit the scope of your essay. If you have another idea which isn’t listed, please check with me first.

• One or more of the literary terms we discuss as they apply to short stories (metaphor, symbol, setting, character, tone, etc.).

• Conflict(s) rooted in gender, race, age, culture, and/or economic class • Societal “norms”: how do characters function within and/or rebel against their communities? • Male/female relationships

• Manhood, womanhood: how do characters fit and not fit traditional gender roles?

• Parental roles • How male and/or female characters deal with trauma or misfortune • Family relationships • Coming of age/loss of innocence

• Narration/point of view: how does the telling style govern what story gets told? • Rituals/ceremonies and their significances: marriages, funerals, parties, etc. • A character analysis, in which you pick a character (or two) from a story that interests you and explore his/her motivations, desires, etc.

2 Discussion threads will also hopefully be a springboard for your writing; take a topic or angle we’ve broached and explore it further. But please don’t simply repeat things you’ve read in discussions; put your own stamp on them. Don’t forget you have additional sources for feedback on your work. GSU’s Learning and Tutoring Center offers online assistance with your writing at this link: https://success.students.gsu.edu/learning-tutoring-center/. Alternately, email me or post your question to the Q & A discussion in Start Here. Reminders: • The final draft of your paper should be a well-developed essay.

It should have a recognizable introduction, body, and conclusion and should have a minimum of five paragraphs, each with a topic sentence and supporting details from the work you are analyzing. The essay should also contain a thesis statement at the end of the introduction that sums up the main argument of your paper. I should be able to detect a flow and “path” to your analysis. Make sure all parts of your essay are working together.

• Specific details from your chosen story are essential to make your main points and thesis statement clear. When you write a paper of this kind, you become the teacher—you are illustrating some facet of a work of literature for an audience who doesn’t have the same insight you do. Keep your reader in mind. •

No plot summaries. The goal of this essay (as with the others) is interpretation—advancing a main point which asserts something debatable, and illustrating that main point with concrete and appropriate evidence. Rehash and summary is not interpretation.

It’s fine to explain the significance of a small portion of the story to advance the argument you are making, but plot summary will be penalized if done in excess. • As before, proper parenthetical documentation and a Works Cited page, both in MLA format, are required.

Five points will be deducted for failure to include both of these. When you quote, paraphrase, or summarize passages from a piece of prose, you need to parenthetically cite the page numbers they come from.

(And make sure you place quotation marks around exact quotes.) • Re-consult the document “Submitting Your Essays and Formatting Requirements” in the Start Here folder as you move through this process. Also re-consult the grading policy in the syllabus for details on late submissions.